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Jul 23, · Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder associated with hyperglycaemia caused by impaired insulin secretion and insulin resistance. In this Primer, DeFronzo et al. discuss the. Download Free PDF Download PDF Download Free PDF View PDF. Renoir, tradition and the half-life of Impressionism tradition (English original of ‘Renoir, la traditizione e l’altra faccia dell’impressionismo’, by Steven Adams. PDF Reader, the best alternative to Acrobat Adobe PDF, is a powerful PDF solution for your Windows PC, iOS, Android, and Mac devices. Any PDF expert or manager can use PDF Reader to annotate, edit, combine, convert, encrypt, and sign PDF documents, wherever you are at school, work, home, or on the go. With PDF Reader, you will never struggle again with .
Pdf expert vs pdf expert pro free
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Pdf expert vs pdf expert pro free
By: Rawi Abdelal and Thomas J. Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness The Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness studies competition and its implications for company strategy; the competitiveness of nations, regions and cities; and solutions to social problems.
Sep Recent Publications. Feeling heard is critical to human flourishing—across domains, relationships are strengthened and individual well-being is enhanced when people feel listened to.
High-quality conversational listening not only requires the cognitive processes of attention and processing, but also behavioral expression to communicate one’s cognitive engagement to others. This need to behaviorally express listening introduces the possibility of deception.
Listening can be expressed using non-verbal, paralinguistic, and verbal behaviors. However, recent work reveals that perceptions of conversational listening are often inaccurate—dishonest portrayals of listening often go undetected, while honest portrayals are sometimes mistaken for deception.
This article will review work on listening, arguing that honest high-quality conversational listening is most effectively conveyed and detected using verbal expressions of listening, in part because these cues cannot be faked. Collins, Hanne. Schweitzer, Emma Levine. Current Opinion in Psychology 47 October Contrary to expectations that economic interdependence might lessen security conflict between China and the U.
Together, these trends have blurred the distinction between the state and private capital and resulted in several forms of backlash, including intensified investment reviews, campaigns to exclude Chinese firms from prominent sectors, and novel domestic and international institutions to address perceived threats from Chinese actors.
People are on the move in unprecedented numbers within and between countries. How does demographic change affect local intergroup dynamics? In complement to accounts that emphasize stereotypical features of groups as determinants of their treatment, we propose the group reference dependence hypothesis: violence and negative attitudes toward each minoritized group will depend on the number and size of other minoritized groups in a community.
Specifically, as groups increase or decrease in rank in terms of their size e. We test this hypothesis for hate crimes in U. This framework makes novel predictions about how demographic shifts may affect coalitional structures in the coming years and helps explain previous findings in the literature.
Our results also indicate that attitudes and behaviors toward social categories are not intransigent or driven only by features associated with those groups, such as stereotypes.
TLR4 links innate immunity and fatty acid-induced insulin resistance. Ron, D. Signal integration in the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response. Boden, G. Increase in endoplasmic reticulum stress-related proteins and genes in adipose tissue of obese, insulin-resistant individuals. Diabetes 57 , — Eizirik, D. The role for endoplasmic reticulum stress in diabetes mellitus.
A comprehensive review of ER stress and the UPR in the development of insulin resistance and obesity. Gregor, M. Endoplasmic reticulum stress is reduced in tissues of obese subjects after weight loss.
Ozawa, K. The endoplasmic reticulum chaperone improves insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes. Herschkovitz, A. Common inhibitory serine sites phosphorylated by IRS-1 kinases, triggered by insulin and inducers of insulin resistance. Sengupta, S. Regulation of the mTOR complex 1 pathway by nutrients, growth factors, and stress. Cell 40 , — Shah, O. Ozcan, U. Loss of the tuberous sclerosis complex tumor suppressors triggers the unfolded protein response to regulate insulin signaling and apoptosis.
Cell 29 , — Park, S. Stratton, I. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes UKPDS 35 : prospective observational study. BMJ , — A seminal UK Prospective Diabetes Study study unequivocally demonstrating that improved glycaemic control reduced the incidence of microvascular, and to a lesser extent, macrovascular complications in patients with T2DM.
Holman, R. Brownlee, M. The pathobiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism. A lucid discussion of the molecular pathways involved in the development of diabetic microvascular complications. Giacco, F. Oxidative stress and diabetic complications. Coutinho, M. The relationship between glucose and incident cardiovascular events. A metaregression analysis of published data from 20 studies of 95, individuals followed for Diabetes Care 22 , — Taskinen, M.
New insights into the pathophysiology of dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis , — An up-to-date review of the pathogenesis of diabetic dyslipidaemia and its treatment. Isomaa, B. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome.
Adler, A. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes UKPDS 36 : prospective observational study. Williams, B. Treating hypertension in patients with diabetes: when to start and how low to go? The optimal blood pressure goal in hypertensive patients with T2DM is discussed in light of the controversial results observed in the blood pressure arm of the ACCORD trial.
Lastra, G. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: an update. International Expert Committee. International Expert Committee report on the role of the A1C assay in the diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 32 , — Diabetes Care 20 , — A reference publication by the ADA on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Herman, W. Diabetes epidemiology: guiding clinical and public health practice: the Kelly West Award Lecture, A landmark lecture providing a comprehensive overview of the epidemiology of T2DM and the public health implications for diabetes prevention.
Is the current definition for diabetes relevant to mortality risk from all causes and cardiovascular and noncardiovascular diseases? Diabetes Care 26 , — Engelgau, M. Screening for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 23 , — LeFevre, M. Behavioral counseling to promote a healthful diet and physical activity for cardiovascular disease prevention in adults with cardiovascular risk factors: U.
The diabetes risk score: a practical tool to predict type 2 diabetes risk. Tabaei, B. A multivariate logistic regression equation to screen for diabetes: development and validation. Diabetes Care 25 , — World Health Organization. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus WHO, Pan, X. Knowler, W. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin.
Ramachandran, A. Diabetologia 49 , — Chiasson, J. Kawamori, R. Voglibose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomised, double-blind trial in Japanese individuals with impaired glucose tolerance. Prevention of type 2 diabetes with troglitazone in the Diabetes Prevention Program. Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial.
Li, G. The long-term effect of lifestyle interventions to prevent diabetes in the China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: a year follow-up study. Sustained reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: follow-up of the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Pathophysiologic approach to therapy in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care 36 , S—S A rational approach to the treatment of T2DM is presented based on its pathophysiology. Raz, I. Nakagami, T. A year follow-up study. Lim, E. Reversal of type 2 diabetes: normalisation of beta cell function in association with decreased pancreas and liver triacylglycerol. Jazet, I. Diabetologia 51 , — Initial combination therapy with metformin, pioglitazone and exenatide is more effective than sequential add-on therapy in subjects with new-onset diabetes.
This prospective randomized trial using a combination of antidiabetic agents proven to reverse known pathophysiological abnormalities in T2DM demonstrated superiority of glycaemic control compared with the stepped approach of metformin followed by a sulfonylurea and then basal insulin recommended by most national diabetes organizations.
Harrison, L. Gram, J. Pharmacological treatment of the pathogenetic defects in type 2 diabetes: the randomized multicenter South Danish Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care 34 , 27—33 Combination of empagliflozin and linagliptin as second-line therapy in subjects with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on metformin.
Diabetes Care 38 , — Weng, J. Hu, Y. One of several recent studies demonstrating that intensive insulin therapy to correct the decompensated metabolic state in newly diagnosed patients with T2DM can lead to durable glycaemic control without or with a marked reduction in antidiabetic medications.
Xiang, A. Astrup, A. Safety, tolerability and sustained weight loss over 2 years with the once-daily human GLP-1 analog, liraglutide. Metabolic effects of metformin on glucose and lactate metabolism in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.
Turner, R. Glycemic control with diet, sulfonylurea, metformin, or insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: progressive requirement for multiple therapies UKPDS A landmark UK Prospective Diabetes Study documenting the need for progressive add-on therapies in newly diagnosed patients with T2DM receiving initial therapy with metformin or with a sulfonylurea. Brown, J. Secondary failure of metformin monotherapy in clinical practice. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy.
A 5-year ADOPT study demonstrating long-term durable HbA1c reduction with rosiglitazone compared with a progressive rise in HbA1c observed with metformin and sulfonylureas, and a more rapid deterioration of glycaemic control with sulfonylureas compared with metformin. Madiraju, A. Metformin suppresses gluconeogenesis by inhibiting mitochondrial glycerophosphate dehydrogenase. The target of metformin in type 2 diabetes. Maedler, K. Roumie, C.
Comparative effectiveness of sulfonylurea and metformin monotherapy on cardiovascular events in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cohort study. Simpson, S. Dose—response relation between sulfonylurea drugs and mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a population-based cohort study. CMAJ , — Mortality risk among sulfonylureas: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. A review of the published literature that examines the relationship between sulfonylurea therapy and the development of adverse cardiovascular events.
Eldor, R. In vivo actions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: glycemic control, insulin sensitivity, and insulin secretion. An exhaustive review of the mechanism of action, efficacy and side-effect profile of the thiazolidinedione class of antidiabetic medications. Miyazaki, Y. Rosiglitazone improves downstream insulin receptor signaling in type 2 diabetic patients.
Diabetes 52 , — Gastaldelli, A. Diabetes 60 , — Dormandy, J. A large prospective study PROactive demonstrating that pioglitazone significantly reduced the second principal end point of myocardial infarction, stroke and cardiovascular death; the primary end point did not reach statistical significance because of the inclusion of peripheral arterial disease and leg revascularization, which is known to be refractory to medical intervention, including statin therapy.
Aronoff, S. Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: a 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. The Pioglitazone Study Group. Erdmann, E. Observational follow-up of the PROactive study: a 6-year update. Takeda [online] , Levin, D. Pioglitazone and bladder cancer risk: a multipopulation pooled, cumulative exposure analysis.
Diabetologia 58 , — Kjems, L. Diabetologia 45 , — Aroda, V. Deacon, C. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a comparative review. Balas, B. The dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor vildagliptin suppresses endogenous glucose production and enhances islet function after single-dose administration in type 2 diabetic patients.
Drucker, D. Incretin action in the pancreas: potential promise, possible perils, and pathological pitfalls. A comprehensive review of the effect of incretin hormones on pancreatic hormone secretion and pathology by one of the world’s leading authorities. White, W. Alogliptin after acute coronary syndrome in patients with type 2 diabetes. Scirica, B. Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Cervera, A. Mechanism of action of exenatide to reduce postprandial hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes. Bunck, M. Klonoff, D. Exenatide effects on diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular risk factors and hepatic biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes treated for at least 3 years.
Schwartz, S. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and the cardiometabolic syndrome: impact of incretin-based therapies. Eng, C. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist and basal insulin combination treatment for the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Egan, A. Van de Laar, F. Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst. Esposito, K. Richter, B. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 DPP-4 inhibitors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Role of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 SGLT 2 inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. An excellent review of the mechanism of action, efficacy and safety of the recently approved SGLT2 inhibitor class of antidiabetic medications.
Wright, E. Biology of human sodium glucose transporters. Merovci, A. Dapagliflozin improves muscle insulin sensitivity but enhances endogenous glucose production. Metabolic response to sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition in type 2 diabetic patients. Cherney, D. Renal hemodynamic effect of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Circulation , — In the end, despite 23 the rationality of its argument, a well-orchestrated campaign caused the company to 24 change its policy.
He also noted that groups are not equal in 28 wealth and while some can hire public relations consultants, others cannot. The later a campaign begins, the fewer 36 choices are open. Miller Roche 23 names four common lobbying mistakes: 37 38 1 Contacts are no use unless you have a sound case. They may 46 take on an in-house specialist, as is most likely in large organisations that need to 47 be constantly aware of issues and legislation. However, there have been calls for 5 regulation of this process see Chapter 5.
The problem remains that many lobbyists are not members of any 13 of these professional associations and so cannot be governed by any of their rules. Bryceson still carries out 15 lobbying work on a pro bono basis for certain special interest groups he supports.
Where 16 does lobbying start — is it only when someone is paid to do it that regulation comes into play? This changed the way that lobbyists worked and shifted emphasis onto 24 government advisors. Parliament was also noticeably younger and contained more 25 women and ethnic MPs. Relationships had to be formed between lobbyists and these 26 new MPs.
By simply paying attention to an issue and 48 neglecting others, the media will affect public opinion. Over 90 per cent of answers are 8 written, and are a good way to bring a matter to the attention of Ministers and other 9 MPs.
Lobbyists may seek to persuade an MP to ask a question on behalf of a particu- 10 lar organisation or to support a particular cause.
All questions and answers appear in 11 Hansard. Whitehall departments and the European Commission draft policy and 23 implement decisions formally made by Ministers and Commissioners. Advisory 27 committees and task forces in the UK and Committees of Experts in the EC, made up 28 of outside specialists, may also act as consultation bodies. The European 43 Council consists of all heads of state and meets twice a year.
The Council of Ministers 44 includes ministerial representatives of the member states, in proportion to their popu- 45 lations. The Presidency is held by member states in turn. These institutions are supported by 49 civil servants and other advisers. The legislative process is mainly governed by the Council, the Commission which has the right to initiate proposals and the Parliament. Professional lobbyists would be 20 expected to know which element of the system to approach and how that element would 21 wish to be treated.
By treating receivers of information as stakeholder publics, lobby- 22 ists can increase the likely success of their case. Due thought needs to be given to how 23 the system would receive the information and respond to it. Miller also suggests that 24 the bulk of issues are settled by negotiation, rather than by a simple lobbying process.
Some of the global organ- 33 isations have competing priorities. The World Bank places an emphasis on cash crops 34 like tobacco over subsistence farming, yet the World Health Organization discourages 35 tobacco use. The remit of the new body was still 40 to investigate and report on proposed mergers, but the emphasis shifted towards consid- 41 ering whether decisions would mean better services for consumers. The chair of the 42 Commission Dr Derek Morris stated that the Commission would prioritise consumer 43 interest over all others, and that its proceedings would be more transparent.
But the importance 48 of support from third parties has grown. Whilst members of the public were not able to make 3 submissions, they were able to attend hearings which previously would have been held 4 in private Freeman Railtrack has a long-term national agenda.
The second case study 8 looks at the Voice of the Listener and Viewer VLV , a small pressure group depen- 9 dent on member subscriptions for its income. Despite this, VLV has held several confer- 10 ences with well-respected speakers and has been invited to submit responses to 11 government bodies.
The company owns the rail infrastructure, including track, signals, bridges and all 2, stations. Whilst privatisation freed Railtrack from the necessity 18 of approaching the Treasury each year to gain funds to keep the trains running for the 19 next twelve months, the rail industry receives a substantial although decreasing level 20 of public subsidy and is therefore accountable to the government.
Privatisation has also 21 increased expectations of the industry, not only from politicians but also from the general 22 public. Whilst Railtrack does not run trains, and its customers are the train operating 23 companies rather than passengers, the infrastructure obviously substantially affects the 24 travelling experience. The Labour government 31 is also pro-public transport and wishes to operate in partnership with business.
With 32 the Strategic Rail Authority emerging under the responsibility of the Department of 33 Transport, Environment and the Regions, Railtrack needs to have a coherent and consis- 34 tent public affairs policy. Whilst 39 the latter have an important role to play in helping you shape strategy and key 40 messages, it is important that the company is seen to lead in contacting politicians 41 and civil servants. We are moving to a situation where we are retaining an agency 42 on an ad hoc, project basis rather than on a retainer, but we are predominately doing 43 the work ourselves, in-house.
Whilst the team has increased in strength and moved 44 from being a mere packhorse to being involved in strategic thinking, there are still 45 only four people in my team. We have to be more cerebral than that. No lobbying is better than 49 bad lobbying. If you mess it up, it can have a negative effect so that it is harder to make an approach the next time. But 16 the surest way to the hearts and minds of MPs is to break it down to constituency sized chunks.
I can then make an indi- 25 vidually targeted package of information for each MP which will contain details of 26 what we are doing in their patch. On average, we have at least one MP visit to a 27 station site each week, where they can don a hard hat, see what work we are doing 28 and get local coverage in the media. Improvements to station surfaces, better disabled 29 access, more bike racks, repairing the clock tower, they can see what they are getting 30 for the money.
We can analyse where complaints are 33 coming from and what those complaints are, whether it is vibration from trains, 34 noise or vandalism, and match our activities to their agenda. We want to stop the 25, people who write to us complaining from 37 writing to their MP. You have to be careful not to negotiate through 3 the media, with government ministers feeling like they have been ambushed by 4 reading something in the media which they should have heard directly from you.
A close relationship with the Chief Executive 9 and senior directors is essential so that public affairs does not become marginalised. This is in contrast with 14 VLV, described below. Around people wrote in support of a piece in The Sunday Times calling 23 for an association of listeners, and a public meeting was organised in November We cover both. It aims to safeguard quality and editorial integrity of broad- 46 cast programmes, and promote wider choice.
After his 3 appearance, VLV was invited to submit a response to a consultation on audio-visual 4 material conducted by the European Commission. There is an 9 incredible complexity of issues that we are dealing with. She was concerned that the legislation could 18 lead to the prevention of video recording of programmes. Current objectives include safeguarding Channel 4 as a public corporation.
With this small 35 workforce, VLV runs between seven and ten conferences each year, produces a 36 newsletter and various publications, responds to consultations by national and European 37 bodies, and has given evidence to three Select Committees.
The association submitted 38 a response to the panel reviewing the future of BBC funding, recommending the raising 39 of the licence fee. Despite this, prices for attendance 43 are kept to a minimum to ensure accessibility for all.
Funding comes mainly from 44 subscriptions and donations. We threat- ened a judicial review and they backed off. In the end the 2 BBC got to keep 80 per cent of the money, which they used to fund development 3 of their digital channels. Societies have developed various kinds of social 27 rules, such as legal rules, or even the rules of etiquette, which act as a framework or 28 guide to behaviour.
Moral rules are sometimes regarded as just another set of social 29 rules, but societies are structured around moral rules in a peculiarly fundamental way. Most notably there can be clashes between moral rules 32 and legal rules. Nevertheless 36 it is the case that, in all societies, a great majority of people accept that they should 37 adhere to certain fundamental moral rules. Breaking these rules will meet with sanc- 38 tions of various kinds, from disapproval and ostracism to, in certain cases, legal penal- 39 ties.
Moral rules help to structure social relations, and many of the decisions that 40 individuals and businesses make must take account of them. Corporate social responsibility involves the 43 idea of business being proactive in its relationship with a range of social actors and 44 doing more than just trying to avoid breaking moral rules.
A key example of corpor- 45 ate social responsibility in practice is corporate community involvement see Chapter 46 This is certainly not 3 the case. The next section will relate these ethical theories to debates surrounding whether 8 or not social responsibility is desirable at all.
Non-cognitivism is the term used to describe the belief that morality 20 is subjective or culturally relative, that is, in regard to moral right and wrong there are 21 only beliefs, attitudes and opinions. From the consequentionalist perspective we look at the results 30 of actions in order to make a moral judgement about those actions. The classic formulation of this position is that of the 40 English philosopher Jeremy Bentham — Happiness is the only thing desirable as an end in itself and all other things 42 are only desirable as a means to the end of happiness.
For Bentham, therefore, actions 43 are right to the extent that they maximise happiness or, at least, minimise unhappiness. So, for example, if a company was saved from bankruptcy because its 13 image and reputation were enhanced by lies told by company representatives to jour- 14 nalists, this may well be seen as a permissible act.
From a utilitarian point of view the 15 welfare of those human beings whose jobs had been saved is weighed against the 16 breaking of trust with other human beings. This perspective is generally referred to 23 as deontological, from the Greek word for duty deon , and is a doctrine that is primarily 24 associated with the German philosopher Immanuel Kant — Kant argues that 25 ethics is grounded in notions of duty and it follows from this that some actions are 26 morally obligatory regardless of their consequences.
Act in such a way that you always treat 33 humanity. The 38 second formulation centres ethics on the relationship between human beings. Kant 47 actually insisted that if a murderer were to ask you the whereabouts of their intended 48 victim you had a duty to tell them and not break the precept regarding lying. In both positions there is a 4 status common to all human beings which affords them protection from abuse by others.
In requiring justice of governments, the natural law 15 conferred rights on the governed. The generally agreed list was life, liberty and, some- 16 times, property. They were rights which governments could neither grant nor take away, 18 people possessed them by virtue of being human. That is, it was no longer deemed to be a contract between govern- 22 ments and people, but rather between the people themselves to set up and empower a 23 government.
As Chryssides and Kaler 35 note: 36 37 So the aim of serving the common good has to be tempered by the admission of 38 rights and responsibilities. Likewise rights and duties cannot generally be examined 39 separately and neither can they be pursued regardless of any consideration of 40 collective welfare.
Pearson , in embracing the concept of intersubjec- 49 tivism, offers an argument which places public relations at the centre of efforts to con- struct a business ethic.
According to this view all truths, including moral truths, emerge out of a 3 process of negotiation and debate. There are no objective standards of right and wrong 4 only subjective views on what constitutes right and wrong.
Moral rules are intersubjective 5 in that they are arrived at through agreement between different subjective viewpoints. There is an additional problem in that a process of dialogue has to stop some- 20 where and a resolution to which everyone agrees might not be possible. A decision 21 might have to made which is only in the interests of the majority and it is hard to see 22 how one could prevent this from collapsing into utilitarianism, where you rely on 23 maximising happiness for the greatest possible number.
Based on that foundational 26 assumption all parties can then arrive at a mutually satisfactory outcome through 27 dialogue. However, it is clear that 30 these assumptions do not emerge out of the process of symmetrical dialogue, they are 31 a prerequisite for it. Pearson then, relies on older established ethical doctrines to guar- 32 antee his model. In practice 44 the attitude of most companies to corporate social responsibility will occupy a position 45 somewhere between the two.
Ethical doctrines play a role in justifying both perspec- 46 tives. Friedman 7 insists that it is wrong to suggest that corporations can have social responsibilities, 8 9 since, for him, only individuals can have responsibilities. He writes: 11 12 In a free-enterprise, private-property system, a corporate executive is an employee 13 of the owners of the business.
He has direct responsibility to his employers. That 14 responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their desires, which 15 generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic 16 rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom.
He does 26 not elaborate on what the rules based on ethical custom are, but he does give some 27 indication as to what the second order rules might involve. If it was, Friedman would have no objection to it. But 35 is actively seeking to do good easily distinguishable from the mere avoidance of doing 36 evil? The owners of businesses, the shareholders, are the only people to whom 6 managers are accountable and the only responsibility managers have is to act in their 7 interests.
While other interests may be taken into account,4 Friedman is largely correct in 11 stating that the managers of a corporation must ultimately serve the interests of the 12 shareholders. It is 23 the company as a corporate entity which owns the assets of the business.
They 25 in effect own the company rather than its assets. Consequently, the right of the 26 company, acting through its employees, to utilize those assets is legally unaffected 27 by changes in shareholding. These values involve a combination of egoism 34 and utilitarianism, a view that claims that if everyone pursues their own self-interest 35 within a free market, the result is the greatest happiness, or economic well-being, for 36 the greatest number of actors within that market.
This argument, that only the interests 37 of shareholders are important, is not universally accepted. There is, in fact, an argu- 38 ment that the managers should act as the agents of all groups associated with the corpo- 39 ration and not just the shareholders.
These groups might include shareholders, employees, 47 customers, suppliers, the local community and even broader society. This model requires the corporation to take account of its social responsibilities. Corporate policy must consider all of its stakeholders. They go on to 4 argue that all affected groups should actually have a role in determining company 5 policy. It is 28 through the corporation that each stakeholder group makes itself better off through 29 voluntary exchanges. From the stakeholder perspective corporate 32 social responsibility is not an optional extra.
First, however, it is important to 42 locate the role of public relations within the practice of social responsibility. When 43 business organisations decide to involve themselves in local communities they usually 44 attempt to explain why they are doing what they are doing.
The message is that nuclear power. Pimlot , the historian of public relations in the USA, public relations 18 is intricately connected with what he views as democratic ideals. It almost goes without saying 33 that there is bound to be a tension between this conception of public relations serving 34 the interests of society and the requirement that it serves the interests of the corpora- 35 tion.
This tension between responsibility to the needs of the company and responsibil- 36 ity to the needs of society is sometimes exposed by the language used in corporate 37 documents that attempt to explain the practice of corporate social responsibility. From this 22 perspective a corporate social responsibility programme needs to demonstrate that it is 23 motivated by duty, and not self-interest enlightened or any other kind.
There is another reason for the appeal to different ethical doctrines and this 46 involves the recognition that corporate discourse has many different audiences. The 47 next section will discuss the case of Telewest Communications plc which is an example 48 of a corporate donor justifying its social responsibility in different ways, to different 49 audiences.
Or they could try to realise the idea that 43 public relations can act in the public interest Grunig , Cutlip et al.
To achieve the latter a stakeholder 46 model is a prerequisite. This model argues that a corporation should be run in the inter- 47 ests of all the groups which have a stake in it. I would agree but would add 23 that there also seems to be a fundamental misunderstanding of what motivates such religious 24 groups who act in the way they do because certain kinds of behaviour, toward employees 25 and society, are prescribed in the Bible.
It is certainly the case that economics and utilitarian ethical theory 29 have a long historical connection and there is a degree of conceptual and terminological 30 overlap. There was very little expla- 37 nation of the kinds of cable services which Telewest would be supplying, but there was a great deal of information about the impact on the environment of installing cable and the 38 general possibilities of the cable technology for business, education and so on.
This is one of the 18 19 20 P reasons why the two are repeatedly used as interchangeable terms, especially by journalists. According to Grunig and Hunt over 50 per cent of practitioners operate 30 the public information model of PR, where the dissemination of information is the main 31 purpose. Whilst this model emphasises honesty, it still does not really address the opin- 32 ions of stakeholder groups. Wragg argues in Bland et al. There is even a whole book devoted simply to how to write a press release 29 Bartrum A variety of methods of contact are put forward.
Haywood — provides a useful set of 32 checklists. Advice is also offered on selectivity in targeting. On 40 the other hand, the greater number of titles has led to the development of smaller, niche 41 outlets, so practitioners have to be more aware of the exact nature of the audience they 42 are trying to reach.
Haywood stresses that it is 46 important to understand how the media work, yet much of his advice concerns the print 47 and broadcast media. Indeed, standard advice on writing media releases double spaced 48 lines, wide margins is a descendant of the days when journalists received hard copy 49 through the post, marked it up and sent it off to typesetters for it to be made up to be printed.
But is the 11 revolution in media relations as far reaching as that in information technology? The 12 unsurprising fact is that the impact of new technology varies according to individual 13 journalists, the media they work in and the industry sector. Three hundred questionnaires were sent out to jour- 21 nalists working in national and regional press, both daily and Sunday titles, national 22 and regional radio and specialist IT publications. A response rate of 26 per cent was 23 achieved, although this was overwhelmingly from the regional media.
Only 8 per cent 24 of journalists from national media replied, 18 per cent from IT publications, and 28 25 per cent from regional media. Only 12 per cent of questionnaires sent by email were responded to, as against 29 29 per cent sent by fax and 35 per cent sent by mail.
Tables Nearly a quarter receive over releases, so the amount of time 36 available to read this information is strictly limited. But the majority 43 of journalists apart from one wag who replied that he would prefer not to be contacted 44 by any of these methods at all seem to prefer it that way. It has to be said that although 45 more journalists would prefer to receive information by email than do at present, 75 46 per cent of those who expressed this preference work for IT publications, where the 47 level of familiarity and expertise with new technology would be expected to be higher.
PR Newswire Europe has over , entries, which are updated 30 weekly for the most important titles, less frequently for more specialist contacts. Media Information has set up Prnet, which has 5, 33 registered journalists who specify what subjects they are interested in.
PiMs can create customised lists of contacts, incorporating fax and 37 email numbers as preferred Cowlett c. Those who send releases in this 41 way should type the release directly into the email, or save it as a text document in 42 Word and attach it. Use of the subject line for a headline and provision of contact 43 information should be considered in the same way as conventional releases.
Freelance 44 journalists also have the added cost of having to pay for the length of time they are 45 online, and do not wish to receive unsolicited material. Table Several quoted local councils, police 21 and health authorities, housing associations and utilities as providing good service.
Look for a human 24 angle. Think about people. If the story is good it will sell itself, but bad PR can kill a good 34 story. However, there is more information around 44 and more places to pick it up from, deadlines are tighter, and where new technology has 45 come into its own is with a greater amount of background research being carried out 46 online rather than through personal contact.
Ideas which are most welcome are those 6 with a local slant but national relevance, preferably featuring someone the listeners 7 know, with something entertaining and informative. Using specialist broadcast facili- 8 ties, enabling an interviewee to give several interviews down the line to several local 9 stations from a central point, can mean reaching millions of listeners.
This medium is set to increase in importance 12 with the advent of digital radio. The development of the internet is discussed in detail 18 in Chapter 18, but also affects many of the other areas discussed in Part III. The use of 19 the internet in issues management and lobbying has already been covered in Chapter 8.
With ructions in the 30 boardroom in late , the company found it could no longer rely on its past successes. Clothes were denounced as dowdy by the fashion press. However, specula- 36 tion about possible takeovers still had to be quelled. On the fashion side, the introduction of the Autograph designer 40 range is going some way towards improving the fashion ranges.
The temptation is to send it to everyone, on the basis that the more people that get it the better, but that can be the worst thing. If you are constantly sending the wrong thing you are 2 going to alienate them, so that by the time you do have something that might interest 3 them, they will probably throw it in the bin.
The food area is very clear cut. Some 4 write about recipes, some write about products. The advantage of being in-house is that you get 10 to know your sector better. Journalists can feel that they are part of a long 18 list if they get a press release, you are more likely to have success with a story 19 through offering exclusives by phone.
Some milk chocolate bunnies were 24 found to cause an allergic reaction, and we found that they had been made on a 25 production line next to one where nuts had been used and some dust may have 26 blown over. There are clear guidelines about what we do in those circumstances to 27 inform the media and the public. However, consumer interest 31 in organic produce has increased and, after consumer research, the company decided 32 to re-enter the organic market in Initially there 38 were two questions to answer: the company was sourcing produce from abroad and 39 was only introducing seven lines in 21 stores.
The limited product range was offered 41 as an initial market exercise which would be extended if successful. However, the company organised an 44 organic produce supplier conference in July with its top 20 produce suppliers to 45 inform and encourage them to apply for organic accreditation from the Soil Association.
The state- 41 ment made clear that the only GM ingredients used by the company were soya and 42 maize, which had been declared safe by the appropriate authorities. All products 43 containing GM ingredients were to be clearly labelled, and all data on any new GM 44 products would be analysed to assess their safety and impact on the environment.
The 5 company also set up a GM helpline to answer customer queries. It 16 is far better to be pro-active in company policy and provide the media with positive stories to cover. New initiatives like Investors in People1 enable companies to focus on their 22 workforce, but even these are sometimes followed in a mechanistic way.
Companies 23 can survive and indeed prosper without taking the needs of their workforce into account. In addition, 71 per cent of senior 48 managers actively integrate communication into their business strategy.
No organisational relationships are as important as those with 3 employees at all levels. Avant-garde groups produced art that was clearly were exhilarated by the vibrancy of a reaction both positive and negative to the circumstances life in modern cities.
The idea of the modern condition can the acute experiences of the modern. This manifested itself in two diametrically combination demanded the attributes of authenticity, which opposing ways: was typically found in marginalized places and in Nature — Nature cults and so-called peasant or primitive cultures. Part 1. A deeply felt cynicism as regards mass of the paradox of the modern condition is that while it sought industrialization and urbanization, the authenticity of Nature, its art was practised in a modern which brought about a sense of urban setting.
Before the outbreak of war, sophisticates alienation and even the apocalyptic. A near unrestrained exhilaration art world — used these apparent authenticities, notions and for the modern world.
The German ethnographic artefacts to critique Western environments and sociologist Max Weber — societies, distancing themselves from their own cultural values struck a resoundingly pessimistic Laughter by Umberto Boccioni. As well as shaping and priorities. Vienna and aligned with a tendency towards the highly expressive or subjective within a of life and the subjective formation of reality pervaded avant-garde He was one of the German philosophical and cultural tradition that distinguishes Expressionism from the more circles, having a bearing on Cubism and, more directly, Futurism.
But Max Weber seen founders of Die rationalist and classicizing tendencies submerged in, for instance, art in France. Les Demoiselles has space and standing on been at the centre of debate in a narrow platform, critical theory for some decades: leaning back against a with its huge inconsistencies pair of bulky curtains in style, strident ugliness and that act like huge intentionally shocking subject stage flanks. While matter, the work has drawn two masked females more attention than any other burst onto the scene painting in the history of through a background Modernism.
The artist worked on the painting concerting gazes. Les Demoiselles — primitivizing appropriation of primitivized faces and non-Western statuary, African female bodies in connection with debased sexuality, prostitution and brothel life — Picasso is either masks and Egyptian hieroglyphs.
In this work and others, Picasso laid the foundations of a movement that would become one drawings for the work. It was one of the earliest stylistic, modernist movements to channel the desire for expression via a search for authenticity in art.
Nevertheless, the terms were habitually used in France, analysis of the Germany and other European countries to describe non-Western artefacts, primarily from Africa subject depicted. In Totem and Taboo , for instance, Sigmund Freud Picasso denied remarked that the only discipline in our civilization to have retained an element of magic was the that the work was field of art.
Modernist groups of artists appropriated the work. One of masks and fetishes in later Cubism. Cubism is not easily recognizable, but is a highly esoteric art form.
Its forms were quickly stencilling. The term Cubism — originating from phenomenological details of letters, numbers, words, phrases, musical notation, excerpts from by the Fang people. This the figure into a multiplicity of parts. But modern artists like Marcel Duchamp constituents held in place by the material in its most physical sense and to the flat shapes arranged — set out to challenge the very concept gravity and fixed only temporarily in simple semantic relationships.
The use of modern manufactured of art and the notion of an artwork itself. Duchamp with pins. His Caning February—April and The Guitar Autumn concept of the readymade allowed choice, chance were to become the paradigm of the modern condition.
Nevertheless, the artist had previously enacted this revolutionary step some three years earlier, appropriating and upturning a wheel and stool to fashion Bicycle Wheel In the decades before and after the war, various ideas and contrasting reproduction and contemporary objects or products. The precise persona as artist-provocateur. In , Russia was art in the s. The art trade withered and works of art became harder to sell.
This readymade object gave rise to the query as to These and other factors undoubtedly had an impact on French art. Nor do of art. The answer was a liberation: art could now conservative ideologies account for the contrasting styles that Picasso and other be made from anything. It could represent anything, Cubists produced at this time. The Bathers , created during the wartime be anything.
The melancholy and nostalgic Three Musicians made the twentieth century. Duchamp submitted it artists. With his inverts traditional iconography in favour of a barren and desolate interior: a use of the Pierrot mausoleum containing funerary objects jars and jugs , perhaps holding the and Harlequin ashes or spirits of the dead souls from the immediate aftermath of the war. In France, Cubism was seen as pro-German and hostile to the core values of French culture.
Although a highly irrational stance, this reaction expressed nationalist anxieties and fears provoked by the avant-garde and concerning the fate of traditional French culture. Tasteful, not strident, colour mandates that the Purist movement evolved. German — connections. Ozenfant intentionally sought to create a direct association with the French classical tradition. On the whole, Purist painting is schematic and orderly. Subsequently, of psychoanalytical theory, in particular the work of Sigmund Freud see Chapter 7.
So Purist paintings recode the classical, freedom. The on 1 December ; it contained a plethora of images, objects and literary experiments that were Purists saw a direct connection between modern art and mathematics, claiming that an attempt to explore the hidden territory of the subconscious.
The wearing a diving suit; he almost suffocated. With its two 2. The irrational products provided by dreams. Airplanes were used in combat Unlike Purism, Surrealism was entirely opposed to a rationalist aesthetic. In this classic Surrealist Surrealism. The strange, creature- parts, disjointed fragments of gesturing female hands, and a strange wing-like appendage. The Vechten. While women and this replica a sheet of paper being folded into three or four artists including Oppenheim, Lee was made for an sections, participants taking turns to draw parts Miller —77 and Claude Cahun — did not overthrow the suppression of women exhibition in As such, they did much to change the Surrealist of a fantastical creature: Le Cadavre exquis.
The movement. Modernist movements were predominantly occupied with In this manner, the game epitomized the Surrealist wrestling art away from traditional forms of representation. Alternatively, it reacts to the modern condition and figure that is part-woman, part-insect and part-plant, and is additionally suggestive of a deadly concludes that art must change itself.
As Charles Harrison and mechanical mantrap. The way that her internal parts are laid open, revealing a bony carapace and Paul Wood point out, the latter signifies the machination and bulbous organs, intimate rape or disembowelment. By presenting his subjects in this way, Giacometti was likely testing of … art to a wider social change has remained constitutive of the limits of taboo in art, part of the disturbing trend in Surrealism.
Parietal art — archaeological term Renaissance — an era that spread Europe from the fifteenth to the art movement in which artists 1. Abstract Expressionism — an art 6. Bottega — a fifteenth-century created the illusion of three- matter was highly simplified and Historiographer — a writer of sixteenth centuries, in which art, explored the workings of the mind. These were representations institution.
Symbolism — a late nineteenth- Middle Ages. Dada — an early twentieth-century of French life during the eighteenth light effects that were unique to century art movement, especially poured and scraped paint. Humanist — a person espousing certain times of day and particular Rococo — from the French rocaille prevalent in France, that advocated aided accurate drawing and by Hugo Ball — as elegantly attired people in parkland the non-religious belief that the locations.
Aquatint — a printmaking painting by projecting an image a reaction against the horrors settings entertaining themselves universe is a natural phenomenon, curves and scrolls of seashells, an Symbolist artists looked inwards technique in which an artist through a small hole in a screen of World War I. Artists such as with music, dancing and courtship. These sunken areas then opening. An artist could then rejected the violence of war, and Form — a three-dimensional understanding it.
Iconography — from the Greek Positivism — a philosophical theory Romanticism — a nineteenth- than just lines. Tempera — from the Latin 8. Chiaroscuro — a term originating Geometric forms may of modern art history in which interpreted through reason and and architecture, characterized a painting technique in which but better understood as African painting has strong, bold contrasts in which colour was separated include cubes, spheres or cylinders; imagery is studied by analyzing its logic.
The term was adopted by the by the expression of personal coloured pigments are mixed with art. The term and other terms — between light and dark. See also Iconology. Connoisseurship — the art the separation of colour, while human figure. See also Style. Iconology — the study of imagery en plein air, and also the Realists natural world. Formalism — the study of art based how they relate to cultural factors, facts of the modern world. Secco — a technique for painting on making the finished work highly and Oceania.
See also Primitivism. The technique was used and when and how they painted Expressionism — a modern German form and style, including the way religion and philosophy.
See also Post-Impressionism — an art mixed in water. It contrasts with by Renaissance artists before the 4. Avant-garde — from the French it. Together with Formalism, it art movement in which an image in which objects are constructed Iconography. France as a reaction against the executed on dry plaster rather Fresco; Secco.
In the nineteenth by individual artists. Impressionism — a major art Impressionism. Post-Impressionist than wet. The technique was very century it was used in a very literal, Formalism. Fresco — a mural-painting movement originating in Paris in artists instead favoured geometric popular during the Renaissance. Theory — a supposition or system military sense. The term filtered subject matter.
Colour was often technique perfected in Italy during the s, in which artists often forms and used unnatural or See also Fresco; Tempera. Constructivism — a philosophy of very bright and non-naturalistic, the Renaissance, in which water- painted en plein air in the open arbitrary colours.
In art history, having It was borrowed again around art originating in Russia in , and paint was applied liberally. Expression — in the context of absorbed and becomes an integral moment. Impressionist painters early modern European artists in matter is portrayed and how the the study of a variety of topics, Avant-garde refers to art and art. There is seemingly ahead of their time, of view, but as functional items stylistic and historical forms that and movement.
Futurism — a twentieth-century art and prehistoric art. See also chosen medium and the ideas discipline of art history. Constructivists were interested in temperament, school, country Italian art movement in which See also Form. Baroque — an era after the the properties of various materials and race. Triptych — an artwork consisting Renaissance, from the beginning such as wood, glass and metal, and exuberance and energy of modern a symbolic image that reminds Readymade — a term coined by Sublime — an eighteenth-century of three panels that can be either of the seventeenth century to the their artworks were dictated by Fauvism — from the French les city life.
Proponents used elements us of the fragility of life and the the modern French artist Marcel Romantic concept, as espoused attached together or displayed side mid-eighteenth century, starting these materials.
See also Duchamp, who challenged the by Edmund Burke in In his by side. Cubism — an avant-garde art Louis Vauxcelles in his mocking the dynamism of modern industry ordinary, functional manufactured fear, doubt, darkness, solitude, Vanitas — Closely related to the Americas.
It was characterized movement that took hold in review of Henri Matisse and and technology. Orientalism — the depiction of objects. Guild — an association of artists, works of art. Many scholars Realism — a mid-nineteenth- paintings in this style often designed to remind us of our colours and intense contrasts distinct areas or splintered planes, in Paris. The Fauvist movement craftsmen or merchants. Guilds have debated its implications, century style in which everyday depicted magnificent mountain mortality and the worthlessness of between light and shade.
See showing at the same time. This fierce brushwork, and the subject eleventh and sixteenth centuries, patronizing or even demeaning. Fabbri and N. Wohl translator , H. Wohl ed. Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre H. Honour and J. Laurence King, Architects, Cambridge University Press, Paragons of Virtue: Women and F. Arte de la Pintura, Seville, , in 1. Bull translator. Bridenthal and C.
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